American Revolution
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The American Revolution (1765-1783) transformed thirteen British colonies into an independent nation founded on revolutionary principles. This conflict was not just a war for independence but a fundamental reimagining of government based on Enlightenment ideals of natural rights, consent of the governed, and republican self-rule. The ideas and documents produced during this period continue to shape American identity and global politics.
Key Term: Revolution
A fundamental change in political organization, especially the overthrow of one government and substitution of another by the governed. The American Revolution was both a political separation from Britain and an ideological transformation in how people thought about government and rights.
Causes of the Revolution
Long-Term Causes
- Colonial Self-Government: By 1760, colonists had over 150 years of experience governing themselves through colonial assemblies
- Distance from Britain: 3,000 miles of ocean meant colonists developed distinct identities and interests
- Enlightenment Ideas: Concepts of natural rights, social contract, and limited government spread through educated colonists
- Salutary Neglect: Britain's previous hands-off approach led colonists to expect continued autonomy
Immediate Causes: British Policies After 1763
After the French and Indian War (1754-1763), Britain faced massive war debt and sought to have colonists help pay for their defense:
| British Action | Year | Colonial Response |
|---|---|---|
| Proclamation of 1763 | 1763 | Resentment over restriction on westward expansion |
| Sugar Act | 1764 | Protests against taxation without representation |
| Stamp Act | 1765 | Stamp Act Congress, boycotts, Sons of Liberty formed |
| Townshend Acts | 1767 | Boycotts, increased protests |
| Boston Massacre | 1770 | Anti-British propaganda, growing tensions |
| Tea Act | 1773 | Boston Tea Party |
| Intolerable Acts | 1774 | First Continental Congress, preparations for war |
"No Taxation Without Representation"
Colonists argued that only their elected colonial assemblies could tax them. Since they had no representatives in Parliament, Parliament could not legally tax them. This principle - that taxation requires consent of the governed - became central to American political thought.
The Declaration of Independence (1776)
Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration articulated the philosophical justification for independence:
Key Ideas in the Declaration
- Natural Rights: "All men are created equal" with "unalienable Rights" including "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness"
- Social Contract: Governments derive "their just powers from the consent of the governed"
- Right of Revolution: When government violates rights, "it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it"
- List of Grievances: Specific complaints against King George III justifying separation
Enlightenment Influence
Jefferson drew heavily on John Locke's ideas about natural rights and the social contract. The Declaration applied these philosophical concepts to justify a practical political action - declaring independence.
The Revolutionary War (1775-1783)
American Advantages
- Fighting on home territory
- Motivated troops defending their homes and rights
- Leadership of George Washington
- French alliance (after 1778)
- British had to maintain long supply lines
British Advantages
- Professional, trained army and navy
- Greater financial resources
- Loyalist support (about 1/3 of colonists)
- Native American allies
Key Turning Points
- Crossing the Delaware (1776): Washington's surprise attack at Trenton boosted morale
- Saratoga (1777): American victory convinced France to ally with the colonies
- Valley Forge (1777-78): Army survived harsh winter and emerged better trained
- Yorktown (1781): Final major battle; British surrender led to peace negotiations
Who Fought and Why?
Patriots
Those who supported independence (approximately 40-45% of colonists). Motivated by:
- Belief in natural rights and self-government
- Opposition to British taxation and policies
- Economic interests (merchants, smugglers)
- Desire for western expansion
Loyalists (Tories)
Those who remained loyal to Britain (approximately 15-20% of colonists). Motivated by:
- Economic ties to Britain
- Fear of mob rule without British order
- Religious or ethnic connections to Britain
- Belief that reconciliation was possible
Others
- Enslaved People: Some fought for Patriots (promised freedom), many more fled to British lines (Lord Dunmore's Proclamation promised freedom)
- Women: Supported war effort through boycotts, running farms and businesses, some served as spies or soldiers
- Native Americans: Most allied with British (who promised to limit colonial expansion)
Outcomes and Legacy
Treaty of Paris (1783)
- British recognized American independence
- Boundaries established (Mississippi River to the west)
- Fishing rights in Canadian waters
- British troops to withdraw
Revolutionary Ideals vs. Reality
The Revolution's ideals were not fully realized:
- Slavery: Despite "all men are created equal," slavery continued and expanded
- Women: Gained no political rights despite contributions
- Native Americans: Lost British protection; faced increased land pressure
- Property Requirements: Voting remained limited to property-owning white men
Connection to SAT/ACT
Questions about the American Revolution often focus on the ideological foundations (Declaration of Independence, natural rights), cause-and-effect relationships (British policies leading to revolution), and analyzing the gap between revolutionary ideals and reality (slavery, women's rights). Practice identifying these themes in primary sources.
Examples
Analyze these primary sources and scenarios to understand the American Revolution from multiple perspectives.
Example 1: Analyzing the Declaration of Independence
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed."
Analysis:
This passage contains several key Enlightenment concepts:
- "Self-evident" truths: Rational people can recognize these principles without proof
- "All men are created equal": Natural equality (though not applied universally in practice)
- "Unalienable Rights": Rights that cannot be taken away or surrendered
- "Consent of the governed": Social contract theory - government authority comes from the people
- Purpose of government: To protect rights, not grant them
Note how Jefferson adapted Locke's "life, liberty, and property" to "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."
Example 2: Patrick Henry's "Give Me Liberty"
"Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!"
- Patrick Henry, 1775
Analysis:
Henry's speech uses powerful rhetorical devices:
- Rhetorical Questions: Forces listeners to answer themselves
- Metaphor: "Chains and slavery" compares British rule to enslavement (problematic given actual slavery)
- Religious Appeal: "Almighty God" invokes divine support
- Absolute Choice: "Liberty or death" presents only two options
- Personal Commitment: "As for me" models the courage he asks of others
This speech exemplifies how Patriots used emotional rhetoric to build support for independence.
Example 3: A Loyalist Perspective
"What is the cause for which we are to shed our blood? If we are to be taxed only by our own representatives, shall we have the right to tax the Irish, who have no representatives in our assemblies? The Patriots cry Liberty while they deprive others of theirs."
- Adapted from Loyalist arguments
Analysis:
Loyalist arguments often highlighted contradictions:
- Logical Challenge: If "no taxation without representation" applies to colonists, shouldn't it apply to everyone?
- Hypocrisy Charge: Patriots demanded liberty while many owned enslaved people
- Alternative View: Not everyone saw British rule as tyranny
- Questions Radical Change: Is revolution worth the cost and uncertainty?
Understanding Loyalist perspectives helps us see the Revolution as a genuine debate, not an inevitable outcome.
Example 4: Abigail Adams on Women
"I long to hear that you have declared an independency. And, by the way, in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors."
- Abigail Adams to John Adams, 1776
Analysis:
Abigail Adams raised questions that revolutionary leaders mostly ignored:
- Logical Extension: If "all men are created equal," what about women?
- Supportive but Critical: She supports independence but pushes for inclusion
- Anticipating Failure: Her "remember the ladies" suggests she expects to be forgotten
- Private vs. Public: Women could raise these issues privately but had no public political voice
John Adams dismissed her concerns, and women gained no political rights from the Revolution.
Example 5: Lord Dunmore's Proclamation
"I do hereby...declare all indentured servants, Negroes, or others (appertaining to Rebels) free, that are able and willing to bear arms, they joining His Majesty's Troops."
- Lord Dunmore, Royal Governor of Virginia, 1775
Analysis:
This proclamation reveals the complexity of the Revolution:
- British Strategy: Undermine the rebellion by freeing enslaved people of rebels
- Limited Offer: Only freed those belonging to "Rebels" who would fight - not a moral stance against slavery
- Thousands Responded: Many enslaved people fled to British lines seeking freedom
- Patriot Hypocrisy Exposed: Men fighting for liberty while holding others in bondage
- Ironic History: Britain, not the "land of liberty," offered freedom to enslaved people
Practice Problems
Test your understanding of the American Revolution with these questions.
1. The colonial slogan "No taxation without representation" expressed the belief that:
Show Answer
B) Only elected representatives could legitimately impose taxes - Colonists argued that taxation required consent, and since they had no representatives in Parliament, Parliament could not tax them.
2. The Declaration of Independence was influenced MOST by which Enlightenment philosopher?
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B) John Locke - Jefferson drew heavily on Locke's ideas about natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract, adapting them for the Declaration.
3. Which event convinced France to ally with the American colonies?
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C) American victory at Saratoga - The decisive American victory at Saratoga (1777) convinced France that the colonists could win, leading to the French alliance in 1778.
4. According to the Declaration of Independence, the PURPOSE of government is to:
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B) Protect the natural rights of the people - The Declaration states that governments are "instituted" to "secure these rights" - life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
5. Loyalists opposed the Revolution for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:
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C) Belief that "all men are created equal" was wrong - Loyalists opposed independence for practical reasons (economic ties, fear of chaos, hope for reconciliation) rather than necessarily rejecting equality principles.
6. Lord Dunmore's Proclamation (1775) offered freedom to:
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B) Enslaved people who escaped from Patriots and joined the British military - The proclamation strategically targeted only those enslaved by rebels, as a military tactic rather than a moral stance against slavery.
7. The Treaty of Paris (1783) included all of the following EXCEPT:
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C) Abolition of slavery in the new nation - The treaty addressed territorial and diplomatic issues but did not address slavery, which continued and expanded after independence.
8. Which group generally allied with the British during the Revolution?
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B) Most Native American tribes - Most Native Americans allied with Britain, which had tried to limit colonial westward expansion through the Proclamation of 1763.
9. The Stamp Act (1765) was significant because it:
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A) Was the first direct tax on colonists imposed by Parliament - Unlike previous trade regulations, the Stamp Act directly taxed colonists, triggering the "no taxation without representation" debate.
10. A historian argues that "the American Revolution was incomplete." Which evidence BEST supports this claim?
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B) The Declaration proclaimed equality while slavery continued - The gap between revolutionary ideals ("all men are created equal") and reality (slavery, exclusion of women) supports the argument that the Revolution was incomplete.
Check Your Understanding
Answer these questions to confirm your mastery of key concepts.
1. How did Enlightenment ideas influence the American Revolution?
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B) Concepts like natural rights and social contract provided philosophical justification for independence - Jefferson explicitly drew on Locke's ideas to argue that government must protect rights and that people can change governments that fail to do so.
2. Why might enslaved people have been more likely to support the British than the Patriots?
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B) The British offered freedom to those who escaped from rebels and joined their forces - Lord Dunmore's Proclamation offered a path to freedom that the Patriots, many of whom were slaveholders, did not provide.
3. What does Abigail Adams's "remember the ladies" letter reveal about the Revolution?
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B) Revolutionary ideals raised questions about rights that leaders chose not to address - Abigail's letter shows that the logic of "all men are created equal" could be extended to women, but male leaders chose not to do so.
4. How did British policies after 1763 contribute to the Revolution?
Show Answer
C) They violated colonists' expectation of self-government and triggered resistance - After decades of "salutary neglect," British attempts to tax and regulate colonists directly conflicted with their established practices of self-government.
Key Takeaways
- The Revolution combined practical grievances with Enlightenment philosophy
- The Declaration of Independence articulated principles of natural rights and consent
- Not all colonists supported independence; Loyalists had their own reasons
- The war was won with crucial French assistance after Saratoga
- Revolutionary ideals were not fully applied to women, enslaved people, or Native Americans
- The tension between ideals and reality would shape American history for centuries
Next Steps
- Read the full text of the Declaration of Independence
- Compare Patriot and Loyalist arguments
- Study how revolutionary ideals were debated during the Constitutional Convention
- Continue to the next lesson on the Early Republic to see how the new nation organized itself