Early Republic
Learn
After winning independence, Americans faced the challenge of creating a government that could hold the new nation together while protecting the liberties they had fought for. The period from 1783 to 1800 saw the failure of the first government (Articles of Confederation), the creation of the Constitution, heated debates over its ratification, and the establishment of precedents that still guide American government today.
Key Term: Republic
A form of government in which power resides in the people, who elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Unlike a direct democracy where citizens vote on all issues, a republic uses elected officials. The Founders chose this system because they feared both tyranny and "mob rule."
The Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)
The first national government intentionally created a weak central authority, reflecting Americans' fear of concentrated power after British rule.
Structure Under the Articles
- Unicameral (one-house) Congress with equal representation for each state
- No executive branch (president)
- No national judiciary (court system)
- Required unanimous consent to amend
- Required 9 of 13 states to pass major legislation
Weaknesses of the Articles
| Problem | Consequence |
|---|---|
| Congress could not tax | Could not pay war debts or fund government |
| No power to regulate commerce | States imposed tariffs on each other; trade chaos |
| No executive branch | No one to enforce laws or conduct foreign policy |
| No national courts | No way to resolve disputes between states |
| Amendments required unanimity | Impossible to fix problems |
Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787)
Massachusetts farmers, facing debt and foreclosure, rebelled against state courts. The national government could not raise troops to respond. This crisis convinced many that a stronger government was needed and led directly to the Constitutional Convention.
The Constitutional Convention (1787)
Delegates met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles but instead created an entirely new government.
Key Compromises
- Great Compromise: Bicameral legislature with House (population-based) and Senate (equal representation)
- Three-Fifths Compromise: Enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation (gave slaveholding states more power)
- Commerce Compromise: Congress could regulate interstate and foreign commerce but could not ban the slave trade until 1808
Key Principles in the Constitution
- Separation of Powers: Three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) with distinct functions
- Checks and Balances: Each branch can limit the others (presidential veto, judicial review, Senate confirmation)
- Federalism: Power divided between national and state governments
- Limited Government: Government can only exercise powers granted by the Constitution
- Popular Sovereignty: Government authority derives from "We the People"
The Ratification Debate
Federalists (Supported the Constitution)
- Led by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay
- Argued a strong national government was necessary for stability
- Wrote the Federalist Papers to explain and defend the Constitution
- Believed checks and balances would prevent tyranny
Anti-Federalists (Opposed the Constitution)
- Included Patrick Henry and George Mason
- Feared the Constitution gave too much power to the national government
- Demanded a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties
- Worried that the large republic would not represent ordinary people
The Bill of Rights (1791)
To secure ratification, Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights. The first ten amendments protect fundamental freedoms: speech, religion, press, assembly, petition (1st); bearing arms (2nd); protection from unreasonable searches (4th); due process (5th); speedy trial (6th); and protection from cruel punishment (8th).
Washington's Presidency (1789-1797)
George Washington established crucial precedents as the first president:
- Cabinet: Created advisory group of department heads (State, Treasury, War, Attorney General)
- Two-Term Limit: Voluntarily stepped down after two terms (became tradition until 22nd Amendment)
- Neutrality: Kept the U.S. out of European conflicts (Neutrality Proclamation, 1793)
- Executive Power: Used federal troops to enforce laws (Whiskey Rebellion, 1794)
- Farewell Address: Warned against political parties and foreign entanglements
Rise of Political Parties
Despite Washington's warnings, political parties quickly emerged from disagreements in his cabinet:
| Federalists | Democratic-Republicans |
|---|---|
| Led by Alexander Hamilton | Led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison |
| Strong national government | Limited national government, states' rights |
| Loose interpretation of Constitution | Strict interpretation of Constitution |
| National bank, manufacturing, tariffs | Agrarian economy, farmers and planters |
| Pro-British foreign policy | Pro-French foreign policy |
| Support from merchants and Northern states | Support from farmers and Southern states |
John Adams and the Election of 1800
Adams's Presidency (1797-1801)
- XYZ Affair: Diplomatic crisis with France increased tensions
- Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Restricted immigration and criminalized criticism of the government
- Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Jefferson and Madison argued states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws
The "Revolution of 1800"
Jefferson defeated Adams in 1800, marking the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in American history. This demonstrated that republican government could survive partisan conflict.
Connection to SAT/ACT
Questions about the Early Republic often focus on: constitutional principles (separation of powers, federalism), the Federalist-Anti-Federalist debate, the Bill of Rights, and comparing different interpretations of the Constitution. Practice identifying these themes in primary sources like the Federalist Papers.
Examples
Analyze these primary sources and scenarios to understand the Early Republic from multiple perspectives.
Example 1: Federalist No. 10 - Factions
"By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adversed to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community."
- James Madison, Federalist No. 10 (1787)
Analysis:
Madison addresses the problem of factions (interest groups):
- Definition: A faction pursues its own interests against the common good
- Problem: Factions are inevitable in a free society (people have different interests)
- Solution: A large republic with many diverse factions prevents any one from dominating
- Key Argument: The size of the republic, which Anti-Federalists feared, is actually a protection
This essay is frequently cited in discussions of American political theory and the role of interest groups.
Example 2: Federalist No. 51 - Checks and Balances
"If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself."
- James Madison, Federalist No. 51 (1788)
Analysis:
Madison explains why checks and balances are necessary:
- Human Nature: People are not angels - they can be corrupted by power
- Two Problems: Government must be strong enough to govern AND limited enough to not become tyrannical
- Solution: "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition" - branches check each other
- Realism: Rather than hoping for virtuous leaders, the system assumes self-interest and uses it
Example 3: Anti-Federalist Argument
"The powers of the general legislature extend to every case that is of the least importance... the judicial power of the United States will lean strongly in favour of the general government, and will give such an explanation to the constitution, as will favour an extension of its jurisdiction."
- Brutus (Anti-Federalist), 1787
Analysis:
Anti-Federalists raised concerns that proved prophetic:
- Fear of Expansion: Federal power would grow over time
- Judicial Power: Courts would interpret the Constitution broadly
- Necessary and Proper Clause: Could be used to expand federal authority
- Historical Accuracy: Federal power has indeed expanded significantly since 1787
Example 4: Hamilton vs. Jefferson on the Bank
Hamilton (Loose Construction):
"If the end be clearly comprehended within any of the specified powers, and if the measure have an obvious relation to that end, and is not forbidden by any particular provision of the Constitution, it may safely be deemed to come within the compass of the national authority."
Jefferson (Strict Construction):
"I consider the foundation of the Constitution as laid on this ground: that all powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States or to the people."
Analysis:
This debate over the national bank reveals fundamental constitutional disagreements:
- Hamilton: Constitution grants implied powers - if an action helps achieve a constitutional goal, it's allowed
- Jefferson: Federal government can only do what the Constitution explicitly permits
- Ongoing Relevance: This debate continues today in discussions of federal power
- Washington's Decision: Sided with Hamilton; the bank was created
Example 5: Washington's Farewell Address
"The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism."
- George Washington, Farewell Address (1796)
Analysis:
Washington warned against political parties:
- Factionalism: Parties lead to revenge cycles and "horrid enormities"
- Despotism: Partisan conflict is itself a form of tyranny
- Irony: Washington's own cabinet members founded the first parties
- Continuing Relevance: Americans still debate whether partisan conflict harms democracy
Practice Problems
Test your understanding of the Early Republic with these questions.
1. The Articles of Confederation created a weak national government PRIMARILY because:
Show Answer
B) Americans feared centralized power after British rule - Having just fought to escape what they saw as British tyranny, Americans intentionally created a weak central government to prevent similar abuses.
2. The Great Compromise at the Constitutional Convention resolved the conflict between:
Show Answer
B) Large and small states over representation in Congress - The compromise created a bicameral legislature with the House based on population and the Senate with equal representation for all states.
3. The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for purposes of:
Show Answer
B) Representation in Congress and taxation - This compromise gave slaveholding states more representatives (and electoral votes) while also increasing their tax burden based on population.
4. Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution PRIMARILY because:
Show Answer
C) They feared it would lead to tyranny without a Bill of Rights - Anti-Federalists worried the Constitution gave too much power to the national government and lacked explicit protections for individual liberties.
5. Which principle is illustrated by the presidential veto power over Congress?
Show Answer
C) Checks and balances - The veto allows the executive branch to check the legislative branch's power, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful.
6. Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787) was significant because it:
Show Answer
B) Demonstrated the weakness of the Articles of Confederation - The national government's inability to respond to the rebellion convinced many that a stronger central government was necessary.
7. Hamilton and Jefferson disagreed about the national bank because they had different views on:
Show Answer
B) How to interpret the Constitution - Hamilton favored loose construction (implied powers), while Jefferson favored strict construction (only explicitly granted powers).
8. Washington's decision to step down after two terms established:
Show Answer
B) A precedent that was followed until the 22nd Amendment made it law - Washington's voluntary departure became an unwritten rule that presidents served no more than two terms, until FDR broke it and the 22nd Amendment was passed.
9. The election of 1800 was significant because:
Show Answer
B) It demonstrated peaceful transfer of power between political parties - Jefferson's election showed that the republic could survive partisan conflict and that losing parties would accept electoral results.
10. In Federalist No. 51, Madison argues that checks and balances are necessary because:
Show Answer
B) People are not angels and power must be limited - Madison argued that since human nature is flawed, the system must assume self-interest and use "ambition to counteract ambition."
Check Your Understanding
Answer these questions to confirm your mastery of key concepts.
1. How did the Constitution address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?
Show Answer
B) By creating a stronger central government with power to tax, regulate commerce, and enforce laws - The Constitution gave the federal government powers the Articles lacked while using checks and balances to prevent tyranny.
2. Why did the Federalist-Anti-Federalist debate focus so heavily on the Bill of Rights?
Show Answer
B) Anti-Federalists feared the Constitution would allow tyranny without explicit protections - Anti-Federalists argued that without a Bill of Rights, the powerful new government could violate the liberties Americans had fought for.
3. What do the debates between Hamilton and Jefferson reveal about constitutional interpretation?
Show Answer
B) Disagreements over strict vs. loose construction began immediately and continue today - The debate over how broadly to interpret federal powers started at the founding and remains central to American politics.
4. How did Washington's precedents shape the presidency?
Show Answer
B) Actions like the cabinet, two-term tradition, and neutrality established patterns for future presidents - Washington's decisions created unwritten rules that guided the presidency for generations.
Key Takeaways
- The Articles of Confederation failed because the central government was too weak
- The Constitution balanced federal power with checks and balances
- Key compromises addressed representation and slavery
- The Federalist-Anti-Federalist debate shaped the Bill of Rights
- Political parties emerged despite Washington's warnings
- The election of 1800 proved republican government could survive partisan conflict
Next Steps
- Read selections from the Federalist Papers, especially No. 10 and No. 51
- Compare the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution
- Study the Bill of Rights and how courts have interpreted it
- Continue to the next lesson on analyzing primary sources from this era