Grade: Grade 11 Subject: Social Studies Unit: US History Lesson: 5 of 6 SAT: Information+Ideas ACT: Reading

Claim-Evidence Writing

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Historical writing requires constructing arguments supported by evidence. Whether you are writing an essay, answering a document-based question, or evaluating an argument on a standardized test, the claim-evidence-reasoning framework is essential.

The Claim-Evidence-Reasoning (CER) Framework

  • Claim: A clear, arguable statement that answers a historical question
  • Evidence: Specific facts, quotes, data, or examples that support the claim
  • Reasoning: Explanation of HOW the evidence supports the claim

Writing Strong Claims

Effective historical claims are:

  • Arguable: Someone could reasonably disagree (not just a fact)
  • Specific: Focused on a particular aspect, time period, or group
  • Defensible: Can be supported with available evidence
  • Complex: Acknowledges nuance rather than oversimplifying

Weak vs. Strong Claims

Weak Claim Strong Claim
"The Civil War was important." "The Civil War fundamentally transformed the relationship between federal and state governments by establishing federal supremacy."
"Many people moved west." "Economic opportunity, not adventure, was the primary motivation for westward migration in the 1840s-1850s."
"The New Deal helped people." "While the New Deal provided immediate relief, its long-term legacy was the creation of a social safety net that redefined the role of the federal government."

Selecting and Using Evidence

Strong evidence is:

  • Relevant: Directly connects to your claim
  • Specific: Uses concrete details, not generalizations
  • Credible: Comes from reliable sources
  • Sufficient: Multiple pieces of evidence strengthen your argument

Types of Historical Evidence

  • Direct quotes: Exact words from primary sources
  • Paraphrased information: Restated ideas from sources
  • Statistics and data: Numerical evidence
  • Specific examples: Events, policies, or actions that illustrate your point

Connecting Evidence Through Reasoning

Reasoning is the most overlooked part of historical writing. It explains WHY your evidence matters and HOW it supports your claim. Without reasoning, you are just listing facts.

Reasoning Strategies

  • Causation: Explain how one thing led to another
  • Comparison: Show similarities or differences that reveal significance
  • Contextualization: Connect to broader historical patterns
  • Significance: Explain why this matters for understanding history

Addressing Counterarguments

Strong historical writing acknowledges complexity by:

  • Recognizing opposing viewpoints
  • Explaining why your claim is more persuasive
  • Addressing limitations in your evidence
  • Showing nuance rather than absolute statements

Connecting to SAT/ACT Skills

Claim-evidence writing directly relates to standardized test skills:

  • Identifying claims and evidence in reading passages
  • Evaluating whether evidence supports a claim
  • Recognizing logical reasoning and fallacies
  • Writing clear, evidence-based arguments on the essay section

Examples

Example 1: Full CER Paragraph

Question: What was the primary cause of US entry into World War I?

CER Response:

Claim: While German submarine warfare provided the immediate trigger, economic ties to the Allied Powers were the primary cause of US entry into World War I.

Evidence: By 1917, American banks had loaned over $2 billion to Britain and France, compared to only $27 million to Germany. Additionally, US exports to the Allies had increased from $825 million in 1914 to $3.2 billion in 1916.

Reasoning: These economic ties meant that an Allied defeat would result in massive financial losses for American businesses and banks. The US had a direct financial stake in Allied victory, making neutrality increasingly difficult to maintain. While the Zimmermann Telegram and unrestricted submarine warfare outraged the public, the underlying economic reality made intervention almost inevitable.

Example 2: Analyzing a Claim

Historian's Claim: "The Reconstruction era was a failure because it did not achieve lasting change for African Americans."

Analysis:

  • What makes this arguable: Others might argue Reconstruction achieved important constitutional changes (13th, 14th, 15th Amendments)
  • Evidence that supports it: Rise of Jim Crow, sharecropping system, violence against Black voters
  • Evidence that challenges it: Black political participation during Reconstruction, educational institutions founded, long-term constitutional framework for civil rights
  • A more nuanced claim: "Reconstruction achieved significant short-term gains and established constitutional principles that would later enable the civil rights movement, but its immediate goals were undermined by the end of federal enforcement in 1877."

Example 3: Evidence Integration

Topic: Women's roles during World War II

Poor evidence use: "Women worked in factories during WWII. Rosie the Riveter was a famous poster."

Strong evidence use: "The female workforce grew by 50% during World War II, with women comprising 37% of the aircraft industry workforce by 1943. The 'Rosie the Riveter' campaign, exemplified by Norman Rockwell's Saturday Evening Post cover, actively recruited women into industrial jobs previously closed to them. However, government surveys revealed that employers often resisted hiring women, and pay inequity remained common, with women earning only 65% of male wages for equivalent work."

Why the second is better: It uses specific statistics, acknowledges complexity, and sets up analysis of both change and continuity.

Practice

Develop your claim-evidence writing skills with these exercises.

1. Evaluate this claim: "The American Revolution was fought for freedom and equality." Is this a strong or weak claim? How would you revise it?

2. Write a claim responding to this question: "Was the atomic bombing of Japan justified?"

Remember: A strong claim should be arguable, specific, and acknowledge complexity.

3. You have this evidence: "Between 1892 and 1954, over 12 million immigrants entered the US through Ellis Island." Write a sentence of reasoning that connects this to a claim about immigration policy.

4. Identify the claim, evidence, and reasoning in this paragraph: "The transcontinental railroad transformed the American West. Before its completion in 1869, traveling from the East Coast to California took six months by wagon. After the railroad, the journey took just one week. This dramatic reduction in travel time opened the West to rapid settlement and economic development, fundamentally changing the nation's geography."

5. A student writes: "The Civil Rights Movement was successful because Martin Luther King Jr. gave good speeches." Revise this to include specific evidence and reasoning.

6. Write a counterargument to this claim: "The New Deal ended the Great Depression." What evidence would you use?

7. Given this evidence set, construct a claim:

  • The Homestead Act (1862) offered 160 acres of free land
  • Railroad companies received 180 million acres in land grants
  • Native American tribes were forcibly relocated to reservations
  • Mining companies extracted billions in gold and silver

8. Analyze the reasoning in this argument: "The Vietnam War was unwinnable because public opinion turned against it." Is this reasoning valid? What's missing?

9. Write a CER paragraph responding to: "How did industrialization change American society in the late 19th century?"

10. Evaluate the strength of these evidence types for supporting a claim about the causes of the Great Depression:

  • A quote from President Hoover
  • Stock market data from 1929
  • A modern historian's analysis
  • A photograph of a breadline

Check Your Understanding

Question 1: What distinguishes a claim from a fact?

Show Answer

A fact is a verifiable statement that cannot be argued (e.g., "The Civil War ended in 1865"). A claim is an arguable interpretation or judgment that requires evidence to support (e.g., "The Civil War was primarily caused by economic differences between North and South"). Claims represent a position someone might reasonably disagree with.

Question 2: Why is reasoning necessary in addition to evidence?

Show Answer

Evidence alone does not make an argument. Reasoning explains the connection between evidence and claim - it shows HOW and WHY the evidence supports your position. Without reasoning, readers must infer the connection themselves, which weakens the argument. Reasoning is where you do the analytical work of interpretation.

Question 3: How do you address a counterargument without undermining your own position?

Show Answer

Acknowledge the opposing view fairly, then explain why your claim is more persuasive. You might show that counterevidence is less significant, that your evidence is stronger, or that your interpretation better accounts for complexity. Addressing counterarguments demonstrates intellectual honesty and strengthens your argument by showing you've considered multiple perspectives.

Next Steps

  • Practice writing CER paragraphs for different historical questions
  • Analyze the arguments in your textbook - identify claims, evidence, and reasoning
  • Complete the Unit Checkpoint to assess your mastery of all skills
  • Apply claim-evidence analysis to SAT/ACT reading passages and essay prompts