20th Century America | Open Textbooks

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The 20th century transformed the United States from an emerging industrial power into the world's dominant superpower. This lesson covers the major events, movements, and changes that shaped modern America from 1900 to 1991.

The Progressive Era (1890s-1920)

The Progressive Era was a period of widespread social activism and political reform aimed at addressing problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption.

Key Progressive Reforms

Reform	Description	Impact
16th Amendment (1913)	Established federal income tax	Provided revenue for federal programs
17th Amendment (1913)	Direct election of senators	Reduced corruption, increased democracy
18th Amendment (1919)	Prohibition of alcohol	Led to bootlegging; repealed in 1933
19th Amendment (1920)	Women's suffrage	Doubled the electorate

World War I (1914-1918)

The United States entered World War I in 1917 after Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram. Key concepts:

Neutrality to involvement: Wilson's campaign on "He kept us out of war" shifted after German provocations
Fourteen Points: Wilson's vision for post-war peace, including self-determination and a League of Nations
Treaty of Versailles: Imposed harsh terms on Germany; U.S. Senate rejected it, never joining the League
Home front: War Industries Board, propaganda, and restrictions on civil liberties

The Roaring Twenties (1920-1929)

A decade of economic prosperity, cultural dynamism, and social change marked by jazz music, flappers, the Harlem Renaissance, and mass consumer culture enabled by new technologies and credit.

The Great Depression (1929-1941)

Causes of the Great Depression

Stock market speculation: Buying on margin led to an unsustainable bubble
Overproduction: Factories produced more than consumers could buy
Agricultural crisis: Farmers struggled throughout the 1920s
Banking weaknesses: Bank failures wiped out savings
Federal Reserve policy: Tight money supply worsened the crisis

The New Deal

President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal (1933-1939) created programs to provide relief, recovery, and reform:

Program	Purpose	Legacy
CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps)	Jobs for young men in conservation	Built parks, planted trees
TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority)	Electrification and development	Still exists today
Social Security Act (1935)	Retirement and unemployment insurance	Foundation of social safety net
NLRA/Wagner Act (1935)	Protected workers' right to unionize	Strengthened labor movement
FDIC	Insured bank deposits	Restored confidence in banking

World War II (1939-1945)

The U.S. entered WWII after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941). Key aspects:

Two-front war: Fighting in Europe and the Pacific simultaneously
Arsenal of Democracy: Massive industrial mobilization ended the Depression
D-Day (June 6, 1944): Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France
Atomic bombs: Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 1945) ended the Pacific war
Home front: Rationing, war bonds, women in workforce ("Rosie the Riveter")
Japanese internment: 120,000 Japanese Americans relocated to camps
Holocaust: Nazi genocide of 6 million Jews and millions of others

The Cold War (1947-1991)

A period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union (and their respective allies) characterized by nuclear rivalry, proxy wars, and ideological competition between capitalism and communism.

Cold War Policies and Events

Policy/Event	Year	Significance
Truman Doctrine	1947	Containment policy; aid to Greece and Turkey
Marshall Plan	1948	$13 billion to rebuild Western Europe
NATO formed	1949	Military alliance against Soviet expansion
Korean War	1950-53	First "hot" war of Cold War; ended in stalemate
McCarthyism	1950-54	Anti-communist investigations and fear
Cuban Missile Crisis	1962	Closest point to nuclear war
Vietnam War	1955-75	Costly, divisive; ended in U.S. withdrawal

The Civil Rights Movement (1954-1968)

The struggle for African American equality achieved landmark victories:

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Supreme Court declared school segregation unconstitutional
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56): Rosa Parks's arrest sparked year-long boycott
Little Rock Nine (1957): Integration of Arkansas high school required federal troops
Sit-ins and Freedom Rides (1960-61): Nonviolent direct action against segregation
March on Washington (1963): 250,000 gathered; MLK's "I Have a Dream" speech
Civil Rights Act (1964): Banned discrimination in public accommodations and employment
Voting Rights Act (1965): Protected voting rights, banned literacy tests
Fair Housing Act (1968): Banned discrimination in housing

Key Figures in Civil Rights

Martin Luther King Jr.: Leader of nonviolent resistance movement; assassinated 1968

Malcolm X: Advocated Black nationalism; later moderated views; assassinated 1965

Rosa Parks: Sparked Montgomery Bus Boycott

Thurgood Marshall: NAACP lawyer; later first Black Supreme Court justice

The 1960s and 1970s: Social Change

Great Society: LBJ's programs including Medicare, Medicaid, and federal education funding
Women's Movement: NOW founded (1966); Title IX (1972); Roe v. Wade (1973)
Environmental Movement: Earth Day (1970); EPA created; Clean Air and Water Acts
Watergate (1972-74): Nixon resigned after scandal over break-in cover-up

💡 Examples

Analyze these historical scenarios and primary source excerpts.

Example 1: Analyzing Cause and Effect - The Great Depression

Question: How did overproduction contribute to the Great Depression?

Analysis:

During the 1920s, new manufacturing techniques allowed factories to produce goods faster than ever. However, wages didn't keep pace with productivity gains, so workers couldn't afford to buy all the products being made. When consumers couldn't purchase goods:

Factories had unsold inventory piling up
Companies reduced production and laid off workers
Unemployed workers had even less money to spend
More businesses failed, creating a downward spiral

Key insight: The Depression wasn't caused by a single factor but by multiple interconnected problems. Overproduction combined with weak consumer purchasing power, stock speculation, and banking instability created a perfect storm.

Example 2: Interpreting Primary Sources - FDR's First Inaugural

Excerpt: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance."

Question: What was FDR trying to accomplish with this statement?

Analysis:

FDR was addressing the psychological dimension of the Depression:

Bank runs: People withdrawing savings out of fear caused bank failures
Consumer confidence: Fear of economic collapse made people stop spending
Political paralysis: Fear prevented bold action

By reframing fear itself as the enemy, FDR was trying to restore confidence and justify his aggressive New Deal programs. The speech worked—his first "fireside chat" about banking led to deposits returning to banks.

Example 3: Comparing Perspectives - Cold War Containment

Question: Why did some Americans support containment while others criticized it?

Supporters argued:

Communism was an existential threat to freedom and democracy
If one country fell to communism, neighbors would follow (domino theory)
The Soviet Union had to be checked to prevent WWIII
American values required defending liberty worldwide

Critics argued:

Containment led to costly, unwinnable wars (Vietnam)
The U.S. supported dictators simply because they were anti-communist
Fear of communism led to domestic repression (McCarthyism)
The policy was too rigid and didn't distinguish between types of communism

Example 4: Analyzing Historical Significance - Brown v. Board

Question: Why is Brown v. Board of Education (1954) considered a turning point in civil rights?

Analysis:

Brown v. Board overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which had established "separate but equal" as constitutional. The significance:

Legal precedent: Established that segregation was inherently unequal
Federal authority: Put the Supreme Court and federal government on the side of integration
Moral victory: Delegitimized the legal basis for Jim Crow
Catalyst: Inspired further activism and demonstrated courts could be allies

Limitations: Implementation was slow ("with all deliberate speed"); massive resistance in the South; de facto segregation continued in the North. The ruling showed law alone couldn't change society—direct action was still needed.

Example 5: Evaluating Change Over Time - Women's Roles

Question: How did women's roles in American society change from 1900 to 1970?

Analysis by era:

Era	Women's Status
1900	Limited to domestic sphere; couldn't vote; few career options
1920s	Won suffrage; flappers challenged norms; more entered workforce
WWII	"Rosie the Riveter" - women in factories; shown capable of "men's work"
1950s	Pushed back to domesticity; suburban housewife ideal
1960s-70s	Women's liberation; professional opportunities; legal protections

Pattern: Progress wasn't linear. Gains during WWI and WWII were often followed by backlash. Lasting change required both legal victories (19th Amendment, Title IX) and cultural shifts.

✏️ Practice

Test your understanding of 20th century American history.

1. Which of the following was NOT a cause of the Great Depression?

A) Stock market speculation and buying on margin

B) Overproduction in factories and agriculture

C) The New Deal's economic policies

D) Banking system weaknesses and failures

2. The policy of containment during the Cold War was designed to:

A) Eliminate communism in the Soviet Union

B) Prevent the spread of communism to new countries

C) Create a military alliance with the Soviet Union

D) Establish communist governments in Western Europe

3. Which New Deal program created a social safety net that still exists today by providing retirement and unemployment benefits?

A) Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

B) Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

C) Social Security Act

D) Works Progress Administration (WPA)

4. The significance of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was that it:

A) Guaranteed voting rights for African Americans

B) Declared school segregation unconstitutional

C) Established affirmative action policies

D) Integrated the U.S. military

5. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 was significant because it:

A) Led to the U.S. invasion of Cuba

B) Brought the world closest to nuclear war

C) Resulted in Cuba becoming a U.S. ally

D) Ended the Cold War

6. Which constitutional amendment granted women the right to vote?

A) 16th Amendment

B) 17th Amendment

C) 18th Amendment

D) 19th Amendment

7. The U.S. entered World War II primarily because of:

A) Germany's invasion of Poland

B) Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor

C) The sinking of the Lusitania

D) The Zimmermann Telegram

8. McCarthyism in the 1950s is best characterized as:

A) A foreign policy of containing Soviet expansion

B) A period of anti-communist investigations and fear

C) A series of economic reforms

D) A civil rights protest movement

9. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 primarily addressed discrimination in:

A) Voting and elections only

B) Housing and real estate only

C) Public accommodations and employment

D) Immigration and citizenship

10. President Nixon resigned in 1974 primarily due to:

A) The Vietnam War

B) Economic recession

C) The Watergate scandal and cover-up

D) Failure to pass healthcare reform

Answer Key

C - The New Deal was a response to the Depression, not a cause. The other options were actual causes.
B - Containment aimed to prevent communism from spreading, not eliminate it where it existed.
C - Social Security remains the foundation of American retirement and unemployment benefits.
B - Brown overturned "separate but equal" and declared school segregation unconstitutional.
B - The 13-day standoff over Soviet missiles in Cuba was the closest the superpowers came to nuclear war.
D - The 19th Amendment (1920) established women's suffrage.
B - Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) brought the U.S. into WWII. The Lusitania and Zimmermann Telegram were WWI.
B - McCarthyism refers to Senator McCarthy's anti-communist hearings and the broader climate of fear.
C - The 1964 Act banned discrimination in public places and employment. The Voting Rights Act (1965) addressed voting.
C - Nixon resigned to avoid impeachment over the Watergate break-in cover-up.

✅ Check Your Understanding

Reflect on these deeper questions about 20th century America.

1. How did the role of the federal government in American life change from 1900 to 1970?

Consider this

The federal government's role expanded dramatically. In 1900, the federal government was small and limited. The Progressive Era began expanding regulation. The New Deal created social programs and economic intervention. WWII showed government could manage the economy. The Great Society added healthcare and education programs. By 1970, Americans expected government to provide a safety net, regulate business, protect civil rights, and manage the economy—expectations that didn't exist in 1900.

2. Why did the Civil Rights Movement succeed in the 1960s after decades of Jim Crow?

Consider this

Multiple factors converged: Television broadcast the violence against peaceful protesters to a national audience. The Cold War made segregation an international embarrassment. African Americans had migrated north and gained political power. The legal foundation was laid by NAACP court victories. A new generation of leaders used nonviolent direct action effectively. Economic boycotts hurt businesses. Presidents Kennedy and Johnson supported civil rights legislation. The combination of moral pressure, political leverage, and legal strategy achieved what any single approach couldn't.

3. How did World War II transform American society beyond just ending the Depression?

Consider this

WWII created lasting changes: Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, changing gender expectations. African Americans served in the military and migrated north, laying groundwork for civil rights. The GI Bill created a middle-class expansion through education and home ownership. The military-industrial complex became a permanent feature of the economy. The U.S. emerged as a superpower with global commitments. The war discredited scientific racism and eventually segregation. Government-funded research led to technological advances. The experience of total war created expectations for government involvement in peacetime life.

4. What are the most important lessons the U.S. learned (or should have learned) from the Vietnam War?

Consider this

Possible lessons include: Military superiority doesn't guarantee victory against determined guerrilla resistance. Public support is essential for sustained military operations. Governments should be transparent about war progress. Containment theory may oversimplify complex local conflicts. Nation-building is extremely difficult. War powers should be checked by Congress. The "credibility" argument for continuing losing wars can be flawed. The draft creates political opposition in ways a volunteer military doesn't. Veterans deserve support regardless of policy debates. However, whether these lessons were actually learned is debatable given later conflicts.

🚀 Next Steps

Review any concepts that felt challenging
Move on to the next lesson when ready
Return to practice problems periodically for review